Since the invention of
computers or machines, their capability to perform various tasks went on
growing exponentially. Humans have developed the power of computer systems in
terms of their diverse working domains, their increasing speed, and reducing
size with respect to time.
A branch of Computer
Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating the computers
or machines as intelligent as human beings.
What
is Artificial Intelligence?
According to the
father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs”. Artificial
Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled
robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the
intelligent humans think.
AI is accomplished by
studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide, and work while
trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis
of developing intelligent software and systems.
Philosophy
of A.I.
While exploiting the
power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to
wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”
Thus, the development
of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in machines
that we find and regard high in humans.
Goals
of A.I.
- To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
- To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.
What
Contributes to A.I.?
Artificial
intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer
Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A
major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions associated with
human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.Out of the following
areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent system.
History of A.I.
Here is the history of
AI during 20th century −
|
Year
|
Milestone
/ Innovation
|
|
1923
|
Karel Čapek play
named “Rossum's Universal Robots” RURRUR opens in London, first use
of the word "robot" in English.
|
|
1945
|
Isaac Asimov, a
Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.
|
|
1956
|
John McCarthy coined
the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first running AI
program at Carnegie Mellon University.
|
|
1958
|
John McCarthy
invents LISP programming language for AI.
|
|
1969
|
Scientists at
Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot, equipped with
locomotion, perception, and problem solving.
|
|
1979
|
The first
computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.
|
|
1997
|
The Deep Blue Chess
Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.
|
|
2000
|
Interactive robot
pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet, a robot with a
face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote
regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.
|
Artificial Intelligence - Intelligent Systems
While studying artificially intelligence, you need to
know what intelligence is. This chapter covers Idea of intelligence, types, and
components of intelligence.
Types of artificial
intelligence:
AI can be categorized in any number of ways, but here are
two examples. The first classifies AI systems as either weak AI or strong
AI.
1. Weak AI,
also known as narrow AI, is an AI system that is designed and trained for a
particular task. Virtual personal assistants, such as Apple's Siri, are a form
of weak AI.
2. Strong AI,
also known as artificial general intelligence, is an AI system with generalized
human cognitive abilities so that when presented with an unfamiliar task, it
has enough intelligence to find a solution.
What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to
calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn from experience,
store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend complex
ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new
situations.
Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner,
an American developmental psychologist, the Intelligence comes in multi-fold −
|
Intelligence
|
Description
|
Example
|
|
Linguistic intelligence
|
The ability to speak, recognize, and use
mechanisms of phonology (speech sounds), syntax (grammar), and semantics
(meaning).
|
Narrators, Orators
|
|
Musical intelligence
|
The
ability to create, communicate with, and understand meanings made of sound,
understanding of pitch, rhythm.
|
Musicians,
Singers, Composers
|
|
Logical-mathematical
intelligence
|
The ability of use and understand relationships in
the absence of action or objects. Understanding complex and abstract ideas.
|
Mathematicians, Scientists
|
|
Spatial intelligence
|
The
ability to perceive visual or spatial information, change it, and re-create
visual images without reference to the objects, construct 3D images, and to
move and rotate them.
|
Map
readers, Astronauts, Physicists
|
|
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence
|
The ability to use complete or part of the body to
solve problems or fashion products, control over fine and coarse motor
skills, and manipulate the objects.
|
Players, Dancers
|
|
Intra-personal intelligence
|
The
ability to distinguish among one’s own feelings, intentions, and motivations.
|
Gautam
Buddhha
|
|
Interpersonal intelligence
|
The ability to recognize and make distinctions
among other people’s feelings, beliefs, and intentions.
|
Mass Communicators, Interviewers
|
You can say a machine or a system is artificially
intelligent when it is equipped with at least one and at most all
intelligences in it.
What is Intelligence
Composed of ?
The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of − Let
us go through all the components briefly −
- Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for judgement, making decisions, and prediction.
- Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practising, being taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of the subjects of the study. The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled systems.
- Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a desired solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by known or unknown hurdles. Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting the best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal are available.
- Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and
organizing sensory information.
- Perception presumes sensing- In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs. In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors together in a meaningful manner.
- Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.
Difference between
Human and Machine Intelligence
·
Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines
perceive by set of rules and data.
·
Humans store and recall information by patterns,
machines do it by searching algorithms. For example, the number 40404040 is
easy to remember, store, and recall as its pattern is simple.
·
Humans can figure out the complete object even
if some part of it is missing or distorted; whereas the machines cannot do it
correctly.
Applications of A.I.
·
AI in healthcare: The biggest bets are on
improving patient outcomes and reducing costs. Companies are applying machine
learning to make better and faster diagnoses than humans.
·
AI in business: Robotic process
automation is being applied to highly repetitive tasks normally performed by
humans. Chatbots have been incorporated into websites to provide immediate
service to customers. Automation of job positions has also become a talking
point among academics and IT consultancies such as Gartner and Forrester.
·
AI in education: AI can automate grading, giving educators more
time. AI can assess students and adapt to their needs, helping them work at
their own pace. AI tutors can provide additional support to students, ensuring
they stay on track. AI could change where and how students learn, perhaps even
replacing some teachers.
·
AI in finance: AI applied to personal
finance applications, such as Mint or Turbo Tax, is upending financial
institutions. Applications such as these could collect personal data and
provide financial advice.
·
AI in law: The discovery process, sifting
through of documents, in law is often overwhelming for humans. Automating this
process is a better use of time and a more efficient process. Startups are also
building question-and-answer computer assistants that can sift
programmed-to-answer questions by examining the taxonomy and ontology
associated with a database.
·
AI in manufacturing: This is an area that
has been at the forefront of incorporating robots into the workflow. Industrial
robots used to perform single tasks and were separated from human workers, but
as the technology advanced that changed.
Emerging Issues Associated with A.I.
AI is developing with such an incredible speed, sometimes
it seems magical. There is an opinion among researchers and developers that AI
could grow so immensely strong that it would be difficult for humans to
control. Humans developed AI systems by introducing into them every possible
intelligence they could, for which the humans themselves now seem threatened.
Threat to Privacy
An AI program that recognizes speech and understands
natural language is theoretically capable of understanding each conversation on
e-mails and telephones.
Threat to Human Dignity
AI systems have already started replacing the human
beings in few industries. It should not replace people in the sectors where
they are holding dignified positions which are pertaining to ethics such as
nursing, surgeon, judge, police officer, etc.
Threat to Safety
The self-improving AI systems can become so mighty than
humans that could be very difficult to stop from achieving their goals, which may
lead to unintended consequences.
Unemployment: The hierarchy of labour is concerned
primarily with automation. What will happen to them if the self-driving trucks
promised by Tesla’s Elon Musk become widely available in the next decade? But
on the other hand, if we consider the lower risk of accidents, self-driving
trucks seem like an ethical choice. The same scenario could happen to office
workers, as well as to the majority of the workforce in developed countries.
Inequality: Our economic system is based on
compensation for contribution to the economy, often assessed using an hourly
wage. The majority of companies are still dependent on hourly work when it
comes to products and services. But by using artificial intelligence, a company
can drastically cut down on relying on the human workforce, and this means that
revenues will go to fewer people. Consequently, individuals who have ownership
in AI-driven companies will make all the money.
Humanity: Artificially intelligent bots are
becoming better and better at modelling human conversation and relationships.
While humans are limited in the attention and kindness that they can expend on
another person, artificial bots can channel virtually unlimited resources into
building relationships.
Security: The more powerful a technology becomes,
the more can it be used for nefarious reasons as well as good. This applies not
only to robots produced to replace human soldiers, or autonomous weapons, but
to AI systems that can cause damage if used maliciously. Because these fights
won't be fought on the battleground only, cybersecurity will become even more
important. After all, we’re dealing with a system that is faster and more
capable than us by orders of magnitude.
Singularity: The reason humans
are on top of the food chain is not down to sharp teeth or strong muscles.
Human dominance is almost entirely due to our ingenuity and intelligence. We
can get the better of bigger, faster, stronger animals because we can create
and use tools to control them: both physical tools such as cages and weapons,
and cognitive tools like training and conditioning. This poses a serious
question about artificial intelligence: will it, one day, have the same
advantage over us? We can't rely on just "pulling the plug" either,
because a sufficiently advanced machine may anticipate this move and defend
itself. This is what some call the “singularity”: the point in time when human
beings are no longer the most intelligent beings on earth.
India and Artificial Intelligence
China’s focus on AI research and development is a
calculated move clearly manifested in the intensity of its domestic
investments. Large budgets have been allocated to AI advancements within its
borders, prioritising cutting-edge fields such as robotics, swarm technology
and machine learning. These technologies have immense potential to
revolutionise warfare and change future security environments.
India should immediately take note of these exponential
developments in its neighbourhood, as its AI capabilities are far inferior to
those of the US and China.
·
The mapping of India’s existing AI capabilities
with a comprehensive survey of every AI focused establishment in the country
would be a good place to start. Such detailed mapping would provide accurate
estimations of India’s capabilities, especially in comparison to other
countries, and strategically optimise its budget in the national and local
contexts.
·
Government support in AI research and
development is essential to its advancement, evident in the levels of government
engagement in the US and China.
·
A comprehensive long-term vision of the
strategic and military role of AI is the backbone of sustained AI research and
development as well as innovation.
·
The vision must cover the various strategic
facets of AI, including autonomous weapons and the role of AI in cyber-defence,
and formulate distinctive policies for each of them. Delaying the initial push
will only widen the technology gap between India and the likes of China.
·
AI will also become central to economic growth,
revolutionising everything from manufacturing to innovation and labour market
productivity, and potentially doubling the growth rates of the most advanced
economies
The AI (artificial intelligence) revolution is well and
truly upon us, and we are at a significant watershed moment in our lives where
AI could become the new electricity – pervasive and touching every aspect of
our life. While many industries including healthcare, education, retail and
banks have already started adopting AI in key business aspects, there are also
new business models which are predicated on AI.
Unfortunately, India has traditionally been two steps
behind other major powers when it comes to acknowledging the strategic
importance of emerging technologies. While the effect of this has been
generally limited in the past, such an oversight now will lead to an inexorable
gap that could severely affect India’s economic and security capabilities.
Ethical Concern
The moral and ethical implications of artificial
intelligences are obvious and there are three sides to the argument. While one
party argues that there are already too many of us living in poverty without
work there is little or no reason to create mechanical laborers (that can think
independently). And that we certainly should not create machines that can argue
with us about such issues.
Another party argues that society cannot develop or take
advantage of resources without the help of machines that can think for
themselves at least a little. And party number three simply doesn't care about
the issue at all, as is typical of human society. On a more detailed level,
opinions also differ about the extent to which we should make machines
intelligent and what these machines should look like.
Are we talking about autonomous devices like space
explorers or robots that mimic human form, thought and behavior? As more and
more of society gets automated will we entrust our children, educational
institutions, businesses, and governments to reasoning machines as well?
There are no clear answers here. Research is widespread
and diverse, covering all of the aspects of artificial intelligence. We don't
even agree on what exactly defines intelligence and already we are creating
artificial ones. So who is to say what is right?
UNESCO’s World Commission of the Ethics of Scientific
Knowledge and Technology (COMEST)
·
The WG on Robot Ethics of COMEST, at its meeting
in May 2016 was to examine the major ethical issues surrounding the development
and application of machines that encompass both physical robots and software
agents, which are designed to function independently from direct human
oversight and can learn by themselves new process or behaviours.
·
The rapidity in the growth of the autonomous
robots, both for civil and military purposes, leaves a gap between the
effective use of the technology and its ethical application such as human
well-being, safety or social benefits.
·
Although the outcome of the meeting is awaited,
its agenda envisaged to discuss the emerging ethical issues from two perspectives.
First, the ways in which engineers and researchers design, build and use
machines/robots in accordance with human morality and ethics, and second to
find answers to such questions as:
- Do we want machines/robots to make morally important decisions? Are we then abdicating our responsibility to machines?
- What is the ethical understanding given to machines/robots and whether they should be considered as moral agents with artificial intelligence or even living creatures?
Furthermore, considering that in the future, intelligent
machines/ robots will be sharing the world with humans, to explore the extent
to which developments in robotics, as an aspect of a broader paradigm of technological convergence, point towards potential new
understandings of “human” in respect of neurological implants and enhancing
technologies.
Conclusion
The field artificial intelligence is a rapidly developing
field and it contains various ethical, professional, social and legal issues.
Also it has both positive and negative consequences as discussed in detail
above. In summary main ethical issues and consequences in the artificial
intelligence subject area include robot rights, machine rights, threats to
privacy, and threats to human dignity.
Main social consequences include both advantages and
disadvantages it generated to the society as a whole. In addition, other social
issues include the that AI applications should be created to bring harmony to
the world rather than which intensity battles, users need to understand the
limits of their tools and agents and AI raises the bar of information literacy
and computer literacy.
AI is already been used for most of the human activities
and even for war. With the introduction of robots people are being replaced by
AI to some extent. In future with the development of humanoid, which scientists
are currently working on, AIs will be able to respond to touch. Even though
there will be many implications which can arise due to these developments the
questions should be asked out aloud now given the fact that existing laws do
not fully addresses the current issues raised.
It is true that creation of artificially intelligent
machines will indeed help people to be more productive and make life easier,
but at the same time consideration should be given to the people who cannot
afford this kind of technology or people whose lives will be adversely affected
through the technology. The advancements of this industry affect both human and
machines in various aspects. It is important to take into consideration of the
same and take appropriate measurements to address the issues before the AI
advancements change the world with an adverse impact to human race.
Finally, there is a
need to move beyond the universalising discourse around technology – technologies
will be deployed globally and with global impact, but the nature of that impact
will be mediated through local political, legal, cultural and economic systems.
There is an urgent need to expand the AI epistemic community beyond the
specific geographies in which it is currently clustered, and provide resources
and opportunities for broader and more diverse public engagement.
